Sociation Today

    Delinquency, crime, and violence have received a lot of attention over the years, with scholars predicting these issues from family (Messerschmidt 2000; Piquero et al. 2009), peer (McGloin and Piquero 2010; Miller 2006; Weiss 2011), and neighborhood characteristics (Anderson 1999; Bellair and McNulty 2005). Adolescent delinquency is also associated with family disadvantage (De Coster, Heimer, and Wittrock 2006), child maltreatment (Mersky and Reynolds 2007), and exposure to family violence (Herrera and McCloskey 2001). Other scholars identify delinquent peer networks (Chen, Thrane, and Adams 2012; Weiss 2011), disadvantaged neighborhoods (Stewart and Simons 2010), and prior victimization experiences (Lansford et al. 2007) as strong predictors of delinquent and criminal behaviors.

Each of the articles featured in this issue focus on policy implications. For example, Sobba’s work on social capital and bullying recommends further developing youths' social ties to foster trusting relationships between students and teachers to help deter bullying. New ideas to reduce bullying are important because prior research finds that anti-bullying programs have been largely unsuccessful (Carter 2012). This is concerning because studies suggest that bully victimization is associated with higher rates of school avoidance (Hutzell and Payne 2012), social strain with peers (Hazler, Hoover, and Oliver 1991), increased mental health issues (Nishina, Juvonen and Witkow 2005), and more involvement in delinquency and criminal behaviors (Sullivan, Farrell, and Kliewer 2006). These studies reinforce why new programs and ideas are needed to both prevent and reduce bullying in schools.

   Additionally, Radu, Sobba, and McManus argue that in order to help bully victims feel safe at school, programs should target hostile school environments and bridge social capital between families and schools. Bridging social capital to cope with bullying and negative perceptions of schools' safety may be an alternative to zero-tolerance policies, which are policies that stress that disruptive behaviors will not be tolerated in schools (Skika, Arredondo, and Williams 2014). These policies may appear to address bullying and foster a more positive school climate. However, findings are inconclusive regarding the effectiveness of zero-tolerance approaches and some argue that they do not make schools safer (e.g., Skiba and Peterson 2000). Furthermore, schools have received harsh criticism for zero-tolerance policies that disproportionally affect students of color (Bryan 2017; Christle, Julivette, and Nelson 2005). This suggests that schools should proceed with caution regarding how they both develop and implement policies related to bullying (Radu forthcoming). Programs and discipline policies should focus on encouraging inclusiveness to promote a safe learning environment for all students.

    While some families may have the knowledge and resources to choose their children's schools, for many, changing schools is not an option (Parcel and Taylor 2015). Brown-Jeffy's work on choosing schools and criminalizing school choice underscores how policing school choice exacerbates social inequality. She argues that disadvantaged parents should not be penalized for making choices and selecting better schools for their children.

    Drawing from the field of social work, Martin calls for cultural competency in her literature review on alcohol and drug use among adolescents. She argues that substance abuse treatment centers should respect different cultures and draw from the strengths of unique cultural characteristics, rather than pushing a uniform treatment model that does not fit all youths' needs. Martin follows Brannigan et al. (2004) in arguing that substance abuse treatment programs that perform poorly on cultural competency are problematic, particularly for minority youth. More sensitivity to cultural differences aids in the development of comprehensive treatment plans and helps to cultivate positive relationships between youths and staff. And these in turn promote more successful treatment outcomes for youths (Brannigan et al. 2004).

    In addition, Maras's work on intimate partner violence (IPV) argues for system-based approaches for victims of abuse, arguing that healthcare professionals should screen for IPV and link victims to appropriate services. While prior research identifies IPV as a public health concern (e.g., Durant 2010), accessing help may be difficult for victims for many reasons. For example, the secretive nature of IPV presents challenges for victims who may be reluctant to disclose their abuse to family or friends. Additionally, studies suggest that immigration status and cultural factors may increase the secretiveness of IPV, which makes it more difficult to access services (Erez, Adelman, and Gregory 2009). Therefore, improving the healthcare screening process may assist victims both access programs and utilize social resources that aid in the exit of abusive intimate relationships.

    These articles also point to the importance of multiple contexts for deterring delinquency, crime, and violence. Drawing from ecological systems theory, Bronfenbrenner (1974; 1979) argues that multiple contexts influence both socialization and development. These contexts include both formal and informal social relationships and institutions. Individuals are embedded within the microsystem (of families), the mesosystem of relationships between microsystems (such as families and schools), and the macro-levels of societies (Bronfenbrenner 1992). Consequently, each social system and the relationships between systems are critical for promoting favorable outcomes and deterring delinquent and criminal behaviors for youths and adults. The articles featured in this issue not only address a variety of contexts, they also stress the importance of considering the relationships between social systems and contexts, such as families and schools, youths and treatment programs, and victims and healthcare providers.

References

Anderson, Elijah. 1999. Code of the Street. New York, NY: Norton.

Bellair, Paul E., and Thomas L. McNulty. 2005. "Beyond the Bell Curve: Community Disadvantage and the Explanation of Black-White Differences in Adolescent Violence." Criminology 43(4):1135-1168.

Brannigan, Rosalind, Bruce R. Schackman, Mathea Falco, and Robert B. Millman. 2004. "The Quality of Highly Regarded Adolescent Substance Abuse Treatment Programs: Results of an In-Depth National Survey." Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 158(9): 904-909.

Bronfenbrenner, Urie. 1974. "Development Research, Public Policy, and the Ecology of Childhood." Child Development 45(1): 1-5.

Bronfenbrenner, Urie. 1979. The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bronfenbrenner, Urie. 1992. "Ecological Systems Theory." Pp. 187-249 in Six Theories of Child Development: Revised Formulations and Current Ideas, edited by R. Vasta. Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Bryan, Nathaniel. 2017. "White Teachers' Role in Sustaining the School-to-Prison Pipeline: Recommendations for Teacher Education." The Urban Review 49(2): 326-345.

Carter, Susan. 2012. "The Bully at School: An Interdisciplinary Approach." I 35(3-4): 153-162.

Chen, Xiaojin, Lisa Thrane, and Michele Adams. 2012. "Precursors of Running Away during Adolescence: Do Peers Matter?" Journal of Research on Adolescence 22(3): 487-497.

Christle, Christine A., Kristine Jolivette, and C. Michael Nelson. 2005. "Breaking the School to Prison Pipeline: Identifying School Risk and Protective Factors for Youth Delinquency." Exceptionality 13(2): 69-88.

De Coster, Stacy, Karen Heimer, and Stacy M. Wittrock. 2006. "Neighborhood Disadvantage, Social Capital, Street Context, and Youth Violence." The Sociological Quarterly 47(4): 723-753.

Durant, Thomas J. 1999. "Violence as a Public Health Problem: Toward an Integrated Paradigm." Sociological Spectrum 19(3): 267-280.

Erez, Edna, Madelaine Adelman, and Carol Gregory. 2009. "Intersections of Immigration and Domestic Violence: Voices of Battered Immigrant Women." Feminist Criminology 4(1): 32-56.

Hazler, Richard J., John H. Hoover, and Ron Oliver. 1991. "Student Perceptions of Victimization by Bullies in School." The Journal of Humanistic Counseling 29(4): 143-150.

Herrera, Veronica M., and Laura Ann McCloskey. 2001. "Gender Differences in The Risk for Delinquency Among Youth Exposed to Family Violence." Child Abuse & Neglect 25(8): 1037-1051.

Hutzell, Kirsten L., and Allison Ann Payne. 2012. "The Impact of Bullying Victimization on School Avoidance." Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 10(4): 370-385.

Lansford, Jennifer E., Shari Miller-Johnson, Lisa J. Berlin, Kenneth A. Dodge, John E. Bates, and Gregory S. Pettit. 2007. "Early Physical Abuse and Later Violent Delinquency: A Prospective Longitudinal Study." Child Maltreatment 12(3): 233- 245.

McGloin, Jean Marie, and Alex R. Piquero. 2010. "On the Relationship between Co-offending Network Redundancy and Offending Versatility." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 47(1): 63-90.

Mersky, Joshua P., and Arthur J. Reynolds. 2007. "Child Maltreatment and Violent Delinquency: Disentangling Main Effects and Subgroup Effects." Child Maltreatment 12(3): 246-258.

Messerschmidt, James W. 2000. Nine Lives: Adolescent Masculinities, the Body, and Violence. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Miller, Jody. 2006. Getting Played: African American Girls, Urban Inequality, and Gendered Violence. New York, NY: New York University Press.

Nishina, Adrienne, Jaana Juvonen, and Melissa R. Witkow. 2005. "Sticks and Stones May Break My Bones, But Names Will Make Me Feel Sick: The Psychosocial, Somatic, And Scholastic Consequences of Peer Harassment." Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 34(1): 37-48.

Parcel, Toby L., and Andrew J. Taylor. 2015. The End of Consensus: Diversity, Neighborhoods, and the Politics of Public School Assignments. Chapel Hill, NC: UNC Press Books.

Piquero, Alex R., David P. Farrington, Brandon C. Welsh, Richard Tremblay, and Wesley G. Jennings. 2009. "Effects of Early Family/Parent Training Programs on Antisocial Behavior and Delinquency." Journal of Experimental Criminology 5(2): 83-120.

Radu, Monica Bixby. (Forthcoming). "Educational Disparities among Marginalized Groups of Students: How Bully Victimization and Perceived Lack of Schools' Safety Impede Students' Educational Attainment." In Equity, Equality, and Reform in Contemporary Public Education, edited by M. Grant. Hershey, PA: IGI Global

Skiba, Russell J., Mariella I. Arredondo, and Natasha T. Williams. 2014. "More Than a Metaphor: The Contribution of Exclusionary Discipline to A School-To-Prison Pipeline." Equity & Excellence in Education 47(4): 546-564.

Skiba, Russell J., and Reece L. Peterson. 2000. "School Discipline at a Crossroads: From Zero Tolerance to Early Response." Exceptional Children 66(3): 335-346.

Stewart, Eric A., and Ronald L. Simons. 2010. "Race, Code of the Street, and Violent Delinquency: A Multilevel Investigation of Neighborhood Street Culture and Individual Norms of Violence." Criminology 48(2): 569-605.

Sullivan, Terri N., Albert D. Farrell, and Wendy Kliewer. 2006. "Peer Victimization in Early Adolescence: Association between Physical and Relational Victimization and Drug Use, Aggression, and Delinquent Behaviors among Urban Middle School Students." Development and Psychopathology 18(1): 119-137.

Weiss, Harald E. 2011. "Adolescents as a Source of Social Control: The Utility of Adolescent Social Control for Reducing Violent Delinquency." ‘ Sociological Spectrum 3(5): 554-578

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